Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(part 2) : CAUSES



The specific causes of ADHD are not known. There are, however, a number of factors that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. They include genetics, diet and the social and physical environments.

Genetics
Twin studies indicate that the disorder is highly heritable and that genetics are a factor in about 75 percent of all cases. Hyperactivity also seems to be primarily a genetic condition; however, other causes do have an effect.
Researchers believe that a large majority of ADHD cases arise from a combination of various genes, many of which affect dopamine transporters. A common variant of a gene called LPHN3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9% of the incidence of ADHD, and ADHD cases where this gene is present are particularly responsive to stimulant medication.
The broad selection of targets indicates that ADHD does not follow the traditional model of "a simple genetic disease" and should therefore be viewed as a complex interaction among genetic and environmental factors. Even though all these genes might play a role, to date no single gene has been shown to make a major contribution to ADHD.

Evolutionary theory
 Hunter vs. farmer theory
The hunter vs. farmer theory is a hypothesis proposed by author Thom Hartmann about the origins of ADHD. The theory proposes that hyperactivity may be an adaptive behavior in pre-modern humans and that those with ADHD retain some of the older "hunter" characteristics associated with early pre-agricultural human society. According to this theory, individuals with ADHD may be more adept at searching and seeking and less adept at staying put and managing complex tasks over time. Further evidence showing hyperactivity may be evolutionarily beneficial was put forth in 2006 in a study which found it may carry specific benefits for certain forms of ancient society. In these societies, those with ADHD are hypothesized to have been more proficient in tasks involving risk or competition (i.e. hunting, mating rituals, etc.). A genetic variant associated with ADHD (DRD4 48bp VNTR 7R allele), has been found to be at higher frequency in more nomadic populations and those with more of a history of migration. Consistent with this, another group of researchers observed that the health status of nomadic Arial men was higher if they had the ADHD associated genetic variant (7R alleles). However in recently sedentary (non-nomadic) Ariaal those with 7R alleles seemed to have slightly worse health.

Environmental
Twin studies to date have suggested that approximately 9 to 20 percent of the variance in hyperactive-impulsive-inattentive behavior or ADHD symptoms can be attributed to nonshared environmental (nongenetic) factors. Environmental factors implicated include alcohol and tobacco smoke exposure during pregnancy and environmental exposure to lead in very early life. The relation of smoking to ADHD could be due to nicotine causing hypoxia (lack of oxygen) to the fetus in utero. It could also be that women with ADHD are more likely to smoke and therefore, due to the strong genetic component of ADHD, are more likely to have children with ADHD. Complications during pregnancy and birth—including premature birth—might also play a role. ADHD patients have been observed to have higher than average rates of head injuries; however, current evidence does not indicate that head injuries are the cause of ADHD in the patients observed. Infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are linked to an increased risk of developing ADHD. These include various viruses (measles, varicella, rubella, enterovirus 71) and streptococcal bacterial infection.
A 2007 study linked the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos, which is used on some fruits and vegetables, with delays in learning rates, reduced physical coordination, and behavioral problems in children, especially ADHD.
A 2010 study found that pesticide exposure is strongly associated with an increased risk of ADHD in children. Researchers analyzed the levels of organophosphate residues in the urine of more than 1,100 children aged 8 to 15 years old, and found that those with the highest levels of dialkyl phosphates, which are the breakdown products of organophosphate pesticides, also had the highest incidence of ADHD. Overall, they found a 35 percent increase in the odds of developing ADHD with every 10-fold increase in urinary concentration of the pesticide residues. The effect was seen even at the low end of exposure: children who had any detectable, above-average level of pesticide metabolite in their urine were twice as likely as those with undetectable levels to record symptoms of ADHD.
Three government-funded longitudinal studies from 2010 and 2011 examined environmental exposure to organophosphate pesticides between pregnancy and grade school. Although the studies varied in techniques to measure pesticide exposure, they reached similar conclusions. Children exposed to higher levels of organophosphates during pregnancy were more likely to have lower IQs and problems focusing or solving problems. One study suggested that genetics play a strong role in whether exposure to organophosphates causes damage. Two studies found higher rates of ADHD diagnosis among children exposed to higher levels of organophosphate pesticides.

Diet
A study published in The Lancet in 2007 found a link between children’s ingestion of many commonly used artificial food colors, the preservative sodium benzoate and hyperactivity. In response to these findings, the British government took prompt action. food manufacturers in UK are being encouraged to voluntarily phase out the use of most artificial food colors. Following the FSA’s actions, the European Commission ruled that any food products containing the “Southampton Six” (The contentious colourings are: sunset yellow FCF (E110), quinoline yellow (E104), carmoisine (E122), allura red (E129), tartrazine (E102) and ponceau 4R (E124)) must display warning labels on their packaging by 2010-11.  However, the existing US Food Drug and Cosmetic Act had already required that artificial food colors be approved for use, that they must be given FD&C numbers by the FDA, and the use of these colors must be indicated on the package. This is why food packaging in the USA may state something like: "Contains FD&C Red #40." As of March 2011, the FDA was evaluating the scientific evidence of a link between dyes and ADHD; a preliminary analysis found there was no link.

Social
The World Health Organization states that the diagnosis of ADHD can represent family dysfunction or inadequacies in the educational system rather than individual psychopathology. Other researchers believe that relationships with caregivers have a profound effect on attentional and self-regulatory abilities. A study of foster children found that a high number of them had symptoms closely resembling ADHD. Researchers have found behavior typical of ADHD in children who have suffered violence and emotional abuse. Furthermore, Complex Post Traumatic Stress Disorder can result in attention problems that can look like ADHD. ADHD is also considered to be related to sensory integration dysfunction.
A 2010 article by CNN suggests that there is an increased risk for internationally adopted children to develop mental health disorders, such as ADHD and ODD. The risk may be related to the length of time the children spent in an orphanage, especially if they were neglected or abused. Many of these families who adopted the affected children feel overwhelmed and frustrated, since managing their children may entail more responsibilities than originally anticipated. The adoption agencies may be aware of the child's behavioral history, but decide to withhold the information prior to the adoption. This in turn has resulted in some parents suing adoption agencies, in the abuse of children, and even in the relinquishment of the child.

Neurodiversity
Proponents of the neurodiversity theory assert that atypical (neurodivergent) neurological development is a normal human difference that is to be tolerated and respected just like any other human difference. Social critics argue that while biological factors may play a large role in difficulties with sitting still in class and/or concentrating on schoolwork in some children, these children could have failed to integrate others' social expectations of their behavior for a variety of other reasons. As genetic research into ADHD proceeds, it may become possible to integrate this information with the neurobiology in order to distinguish disability from varieties of normal or even exceptional functioning in people along the same spectrum of attention differences.


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